Radio Astronomy in the Desert

Radio Astronomy in the Desert If you drive across the Plains of San Agustin in central west New Mexico, youll come across an array of radio telescopes, all pointed toward the sky. This collection of big dishes is called the Very Large Array, and its collectors combine to make a very large radio eye on the sky. Its sensitive to the radio part of the  electromagnetic spectrum  (EMS). Radio Waves from Space? Objects in space give off radiation from all parts of the EMS. Some are brighter in some parts of the spectrum than others. Cosmic objects that give off radio emissions are undergoing exciting and energetic processes. The science of radio astronomy is the study of those objects and their activities. Radio astronomy reveals an unseen part of the universe we cannot detect with our eyes, and its a branch of astronomy that began when the first radio telescopes were built in the late 1920s by Bell Labs physicist Karl Jansky. More about the VLA There are radio telescopes around the planet, each tuned to frequencies in the radio band that come from naturally emitting objects in space. The VLA is one of the most famous and its full name is the Karl G. Jansky Very Large Array. It has 27 radio telescope dishes arranged in a Y-shaped pattern. Each antenna is large - 25 meters (82 feet) across. The observatory welcomes tourists and provides background information about how the telescopes are used. Many people are familiar with the array from the movie Contact, starring Jodie Foster.  The VLA is also known as the EVLA (Expanded VLA), with upgrades to its electronics, data handling, and other infrastructure. In the future it may  get additional dishes.   The VLAs antennas  can be used individually, or they can be hooked together to create a virtual radio telescope up to 36 kilometers wide! That allows the VLA to focus in on some very small areas of sky to gather details about such events and objects as stars turning on, dying in supernova and hypernova  explosions, structures inside giant clouds of gas and dust (where stars might be forming), and the action of the black hole at the center of the Milky Way Galaxy. The VLA has also been used to detect molecules in space, some of them precursors to pre-biotic (related to life) molecules common here on Earth.   VLA History The VLA was built in the 1970s. The upgraded facility carries a full observing load for astronomers around the world. Each dish is moved into position by railroad cars, creating the correct configuration of telescopes for specific observations. If astronomers want to focus on something extremely detailed and distant, they can use the VLA in conjunction with telescopes stretching from St. Croix in the Virgin Islands to Mauna Kea on the Big Island of Hawaii. This larger network is called the Very Large Baseline Interferometer (VLBI), and it creates a telescope with a resolving area the size of a continent. Using this larger array, radio astronomers have succeeded in measuring the event horizon around our galaxys black hole, joined the search for dark matter in the universe, and explored the hearts of distant galaxies.   The future of radio astronomy is big. There are huge new arrays built in South America, and under construction in Australia and South Africa. Theres also a single dish in China measuring 500 meters (about 1,500 feet) across. Each of these radio telescopes is set well apart from the radio noise generated by human civilization. Earths deserts and mountains, each one with its own special ecological niches and landscapes, are also precious to radio astronomers. From those deserts, astronomers continue to explore the cosmos, and  the VLA remains central to the work being done to understand the radio universe, and takes its rightful place with its newer siblings.

For a contract to exist under Scots Law there must be consensus in idem or a meeting of minds Essays

For a contract to exist under Scots Law there must be consensus in idem or a meeting of minds Essays For a contract to exist under Scots Law there must be consensus in idem or a meeting of minds Paper For a contract to exist under Scots Law there must be consensus in idem or a meeting of minds Paper Essay Topic: Law A basic definition, of a contract is an agreement enforceable at Law. Institutional writers, whose works, strongly influenced, Scots Law, wrote of Contract as a form of obligation. Erskine defined a contract as a legal tie, by which one is bound to pay or perform, something to another. However, it should be noted, under some circumstances, certain legal ties or obligations, may have legal consequences, but are not legally enforceable. A contract has been defined in the Digest of English Civil Law as an agreement, which creates, or is intended to create, a legal obligation, between the parties to it. The contract is based upon its ingredients, such as the Offer, the Acceptance of the Offer and the Intention of both parties (the Offeror and the Offeree or Acceptor) to be bound by the terms of the contract. Consensus in idem, literally means, a meeting of the minds, or an agreement, as to the same thing. In other words it is the common consent, necessary for a binding contract. This idea evolved, from the 19th century regard for the free market, and Laissez Faire. It is a minimalist approach, to contractual relations, between people, which are enforceable by the Law. Parties must be in mutual agreement, to the terms, which bind them, in order for, consensus in idem, to exist. This is displayed by the words of Bell, To a perfect obligation, (besides the proof requisite), it is necessary that there shall be a deliberate and voluntary consent to engage. Consent to contract, however can be viewed, in a Subjective sense, considering elements, which invalidate such agreement, as well as incapacity to do so, based upon the nature of the party involved, or how, such consent, is obtained. Such a perspective, can be demonstrated in Harvey V. Smith, (1904) 6F, 511, where missives were held, not to be binding, on an illiterate man. The contract, formed, in this case, seems to have found its existence, owing to, the incapacity, of one of the parties (the defendant), based on his illiteracy and a lack of understanding of the terms, the contract involved. However, the decision, made by the judge presiding, was on, grounds of distinguishing between the plain meanings of words and highly technical rules. : It seems that this decision, was made, because the judge, sought to avoid, an objective approach, as to the nature of consent, owing to sympathy with the defendants weaker position, and insufficient means, to establish, Facility and Circumvention or Undue Influence. An Objective standpoint can be found, in the words of Lord Russell of Killowen, from the English case of, Esso Petroleum Ltd V. Commissioners of Custom Excise, [1976] All E. R. here he said that, it is trite law, that if on analysis, a transaction has in Law, one character, the fact that the parties either accidentally or deliberately, frame the transaction, in language appropriate, to a transaction of a different character, will not deny it, to its true character. The idea behind this, objective approach is that a contracts legal effects should not be based upon the intentions of the parties involved in it. In the appeal case of, Muirhead Turnbull V. Dickson, (1905) 7F. 686, the parties involved were in dispute about w hether, the contract between them, was one of Hire Purchase or Sale. Lord President Dunedin stated that, contracts cannot be arranged, by what people think in their inmost minds contracts are made according to what people say. Consequently, it can be said that, when tested objectively, a persons secret intent, behind consenting, to enter into a contract, is not relevant as far as the law is concerned. The Subjective Approach to ascertain consensus, deals with situations of its improper attainment, which invalidates, the contract in question, as there is no actual meeting of minds. Circumvention is a form of Constructive Fraud, conforming with, Lord President MNeills definition, from MKeller V. MKeller. 1861, 24 D. 143. In such a crime, consent is obtained by outwitting or circumventing another party. Facility is the necessary foundation, for the plea of circumvention, distinguishing it from fraud. It means a weakening of the facilities, owing to severe illness, old age and sometimes even intoxication, as in Jackson V. Pollock, 1900, 8. S. L. T. 267. A typical example of a contract rendered void, due to circumvention, is Sunderland V. W. M. Low Co. Ltd (1901) 3F. 972, where a party T, who was insolvent to debt, convinced his facile brother-in-law S, to become a cautioner in a bond, for the amount, of his debt, by telling him, that he would never have to pay, if he signed and consulting a law-agent was unnecessary. S was charged to pay the sum, but the Courts held the obligation to be reduced, on grounds of circumvention owing to facility. Force and Fear is demonstrated similarly as, consent improperly obtained, undermining contract as in the case of The Earl of Orkney V. Vinfra, (1606) Mor. 6,481, where the Earl forced Vinfra, to contract with him, by threatening him with a sword. The contract was held, to be null, as the exception of fear, was very relevant. However, fear of lawful consequences, does not from sufficient grounds, to plead, a forced consent, as in Priestnell V. Hutcheson, (1857) 19 D. 485. Other means of obtaining consent improperly, leading to annulment, of contracts, include Undue Influence, Error and Misrepresentation of any sort. Consensus between the parties of a contract, when objectively perceived, may be in question, in some circumstances, and nevertheless the contract upheld. This is because, as previously mentioned, the legal consequences of contractual committal, sometimes differ from the intent, of the deliberating parties in question. Consent given, owing to an error, entertained by, one of the parties, was not considered, by itself sufficient, to nullify the contract, in the case of, Stewart V. Kennedy, (1890) 17 R, (H. L. ) 25. Error in Scots Law, is not a basis, for avoidance, of an obligation, founded on consent, but may preclude, the giving of that consent. In the previously mentioned case, it was held, affirming the session courts decision, that (irrespective of intent), the appellant, could not claim, to have the contract reduced, merely because, he understood it to be, other than, it really was. A similar decision which, upheld the terms of the contract, without considering the intent of, one of the parties, (in this case the defendant) was made, in the famous English case, of Carlill V. Carbolic Smoke Ball Co. [1893] 1. Q. B. 256. Usually an offer, is made to one particular Legal Personality, however in some cases, as demonstrated in this one, it can be made to the whole world. The defendants were the proprietors of the Carbolic Smoke Ball, which they advertised, to be preventive, of any disease, associated with taking cold. The advertisement, also offered, to pay a sum of money, to any party, who contracted influenza after the prescribed usage of their product. Mrs Carlill, the plaintiff, did exactly this, and then sought to claim the, sum offered. The Court of Appeal, interpreted the advertisement as, an offer to a unilateral contract where, as in this case, the sum payable was based upon, the fulfilment of a condition, which was contracting influenza. The defence, claimed the case to be, similar to Harris V. Nickerson, Law Rep. 8 Q. B. 286, where the advertisement, was held too vague, to be the basis, of a contract. Furthermore they stated that the advertisement was a mere puff which meant nothing, and that it was not the intent of the defendants to contract, although the company had claimed, in the advertisement, to have deposited, a sum of money in the Alliance Bank, as a sign of good faith. Hawkins J. ound for the plaintiff, as he judged, the intent of the defendants to be immaterial, and that the facts of the case did indeed establish a contract, although there was clearly no Consensus in idem. Another example of how the objective approach, to ascertaining consensus, can enforce a contract without a meeting of minds, can be found in Buchannan V. The Duke of Hamilton, (1878) 5. R. (H. L. ) 69. In the words of Lord Blackburn; It is not enough, that the parties, were not agreed. It may have been, that one of them meant one thing and the other, the other. Nevertheless if one has so conducted that if he had been, a reasonable man, he would have known, that the other side, did agree, to certain terms, and if, the other side did, in fact, in consequence of his so acting, believe it, it matters not, that man, did not really mean, to do it. He would be personally barred from disputing, he was bound, by the terms, which the other side had been led to believe were relied on, by him. In an ideal contract, the parties to it would fulfil, the terms, in complete agreement, as to what the contract is. This is where Consensus in idem, exists. However such Consensus, is not really a meeting of minds, in the strictest sense of the expression, when real contracts are dealt with. This is because it seems, that the Law of Contract does, make the sanction, for circumstances where a contract, may be completed, without the parties ever having been in agreement at all.

The Moral question of legallizing Marijuana Research Paper

The Moral question of legallizing Marijuana - Research Paper Example The rising numbers of people who are addicted to marijuana bring forth the severity of the problem. But, apart from these common but dubious modes, one of the positive but underrated ways in which Marijuana can be used is in the form of medicinal drugs to treat many health ailments, which cannot be optimally treated by other drugs. So, the moral question here is whether it right to overlook the negative effects of Marijuana, legalize it and use it for medicinal purposes. That is, although Marijuana has negative effects, it will be negative only if it is used in excessive and extreme manner. However, the other perspective is, using Marijuana aptly and positively will save many lives and eliminate their sufferings. So, this paper will focus on this contemporary problem, making a case that would be just to legalize Marijuana. Although legalizing Marijuana will bring financial advantages to the state coffers, the main crux based on which it should be legalized, is its use for medicinal purposes. So, this paper will argue for legalization and will justify such a measure by listing out how it can be used to treat many medical aliments, thereby providing a moral justification. Legalization of marijuana has been an issue of contention of late with some arguing that legalization is good and others opposing it completely. The sparkle to kick-off the debate was thrown when San Francisco Assemblyman Tom Ammiano, instigated a legislation to legalize marijuana in California (Sabatini, 2009). This in turn has attracted diverse dimensions with some big names like California governor, Arnold Schwarzenegger, once a staunch opposer on the move, coming out publicly to accept that the time is now that lawmakers should exclusively debate the issue considering the economic aspect of marijuana trade as the downturn continues to bite (Sabatini, 2009). Over 500 economists including well known Friedman, Nobel Laureate